CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1. Background of The Study
After we learnt in word classes, we found that the lexical words belong to four classes according to the way in which they are combined. We knew how to identify them both in isolation and as members of larger structures. We are ready to return to a consideration of the structures themselves now.
If we collect a group of minimal syntactic structures—combinations of no more than two lexical words, with or without function words—and study them, we will soon discover that they are not alike in the part of speech that make them up. In fact, we can divide them into four basic types of syntactic structure. These are structure of modification, structure of predication, structure of complementation, and structure of coordination.
In this paper we just discuss about structure of predication. We will study about subject and predicate more. We will know what can be subject and predicate, and some verbs in English verbs.
2. Problem Statement
Based on the background of study the problem statements in this study are:
a. What are the two components of a structure of predication?
b. What can be subject and predicate?
c. What are verbs which are classed in English verbs?
3. Purpose
a. To know the two components of a structure of predication
b. To know what can be subject and predicate
c. To know the verbs which are classed in English verbs are
4. Advantage
a. Having know the two components of a structure of predication
b. Having know what can be subject and predicate
c. Having know verbs in English verbs
CHAPTER II
STRUCTURE OF PREDICATION
The two immediate constituents of a structure of predication are a subject and a predicate, usually, but not always, coming in that order. Each of these may be a single word, a word with accompanying function word(s), a phrase, or one of the three other kinds of syntactic structure-modification, complementation, or coordination. In addition, the subject may itself be a structure of predication of the type we shall later define as included clause. For the present, we shall confine our discussion to the simpler types of subject and predicate, postponing consideration of more complex structures of predication.
PREDICATES
Since the best distinguishing mark of a structure of predication is the predicate, let us begin with it. Once a predicate has been identified, its subject usually becomes apparent without difficulty.
A predicate may consist of, it always has a verb or verb-phrase in key position. Thus, if a predicate has only one word, that one word is a verb, as in money talks, the sun sets. If the predicate is a structure of modification, its head is a verb, as in
Courtesy always ---> pays
If the predicate is a structure of complementation, one of its immediate constituents it by definition a verbal element, which always has a verb at its core:
If the predicate is a structure of coordination, its coordinate members are either verbs themselves or structures in which verbs are essential elements:
We talked and walked
The predicate is usually a more or less complex structure or structure or structures, with the verbs at its core. In analyzing such predicates, we may have to work our way through several structural layers before we can finally isolate the verb. But the verb is the heart of the matter, and certain formal qualities of the verb determine important elements in the structural meaning of the predicate.
English verbs exhibit formal distinctions which can be classed under seven heads: person, tense, phase, aspect, mode, voice, and status. These distinctions are made by means of inflections, auxiliaries and other function words, word order, and prosody-all the signals of syntactic structure except derivational contrast. In the following discussion we shall concentrate on the first three, since they usually are sufficient to permit identification or the verb-form and are all that are available in the written language. But in one or two cases we shall have to call upon prosody to make distinctions between forms that are otherwise formally identical.
1. Person
All English verbs except the modal auxiliaries (can, may, shall, will, must, dare, need) have two persons, which can be called common and third singular. Verb forms consisting of base form + {-s} inflection are in the third–singular person; all others (except certain forms of be) are in the common person.
The distribution of the third-singular form of English verbs is quite complicated and exhibits some variation from one dialect to another. It can, however, be described in general terms as follows. The third-singular person is used whenever a simple verb is the head-verb in a predicate whose subject is one of the following:
(1) A noun for which he, she, or it, may be substituted, as in: the man walks; the sun sets.
(2) One of the pronouns he, she, or it.
Examples: he feels; she speaks; it comes (but note exception in watch it come).
(3) The function-nouns this or that.
Examples: this looks good; that goes here.
(4) A structure of modification of which one of the above is head.
Examples: the tall man in the car drives; that in the dish tastes good.
(5) Any other part of speech beside a noun, or a structure of modification or complementation with such part of speech as head or verbal element.
Examples: here seems like a good place; eating candy causes tooth decay.
(6) One of certain special structures of predication: the included clause and infinitive clause, as in: what I want costs money; how it got there remains a mystery.
(7) A structure of coordination is or, nor, (n)either … (n)or, or not (only) … but (also) and in which the last coordinate element belongs to (1)-(6) above: also one of certain other special structures of coordination.
Example: either his mistakes or his bad luck keeps him poor.
All other kinds of subjects correlate with the common form of the verb. Chief of these are nouns for which they can be substituted; the pronouns I, you, we, they, me, him, her, us, them; the function nouns these and those; structures of coordination with coordinators and, both . . . and, and the like; a few special included clauses. Some examples:
dogs bark
I
you walk
we
they
me
him
(watch) her walk
us
them
2. Tense
All English verbs except a few auxiliaries (ought, must) have two tenses, the common (present) tense and the past (preterit) tense. These are distinguished by inflections. The past-tense form consist of the base + {-ed}; the common tense forms are the base alone and the third-singular (base + {-s}). Examples:
Past tense:
We walked
They studied
Common tense:
We walk
He comes
3. Phase
All English verbs except a few auxiliaries have two phases, the simple and the perfect. The perfect phase is marked by have/has/had with past-participle form of the verb: she has spoken, we may have been..., he has gone. In addition, certain verbs, all of the kind we shall later define as intransitive, have a resultative phase, formed with the auxiliary be and the past-participle form of the verb: he is gone, they are finished with the homework. Verbs not formally marked as in the perfect or resultative phase ar in the simple phase.
4. Aspect
English verbs have three aspects, the simpe, the durative, and the inchoative. The simple aspect is unmarked. The durative is formed by the auxiliary be and present-participle (base + {-ing}) form of the verb. The inchoative aspect is formed by the auxiliary get and the present-participle form of the verb.
Durative:
He is talking
She was swimming
We ought to be working
Inchoative:
We got talking
Let’s get going
We ought to get working
5. Mode
English verbs have a variety of modes. The modes can be classified on the basis of form into two groups: (1) those formed by the modal auxiliaries with the base form of the verb, and (2) those formed by certain other auxiliaries with the infinitive (to – base) form of the verb. The modal auxiliaries are can, may, shall, will, must, dare, need, do. All of these except must and need have past-tense forms; do also has a third-singular orm, does. The auxiliaries which form modes with the infiniive are have, be, be going, be about, used, ought, get, have got.
Modal auxiliaries:
He can go
We might see
They should have spoken
You will come
Everybody must die
Nobody dared do it
You need not worry
He does study
Other auxiliaries:
They have to go
We are to see
He was going to speak
People were about to leave
She used to sing
The man ought to have quit
I never got to see Paris
He has got to study
A verb-phrase may belong to two modes at the same time. In such a case, ony one may be from the modal-auxiliary group, and its auxiliary alwaya comes first in the phrase. Thus, we may have forms such as:
He would have to work
He could be about to work
He may be going to tell us
But not:
He has to can work
He is going to must work
He will can do it
6. Voice
English verbs have two voices, the normal or active voice and the passive voice. Passive voice forms consist of some form of the auxiliary be with the past-participle form of the verb. Another assive, formed with get as auxiliary and the past-participle, seems to be increasing in frequency, though grammarians are at present not agreed as to its status. The three types of voice-forms are illustrated in the following examples:
Active:
He kills
They built a house
We have done the work
be-passive:
he is killed
he house was built
the work has been done
get-passive:
he gets killed
he house got built
the work has got done
Two structures which are exactly alike in the written form and sometimes alike in spech are be-passive and the verb be with a past participle a subjective complement. Consider the following sentences:
a. The house was built by experts
b. The house was built of wood
In (a), there is a passive verb, was built, as head with the prepositional phrase by expert as modifier, the whole structure of modofication srving as predicate. In (b), on other hand the verb is was, with the structure of modification built of wood serving as subjective complment. These structures are also formally distinguished is the presence, actual or possible, of a phrase containing the preposition by.
7. Status
English verbs have four statuses, the affirmative, the interrogative, and the negative-interrogative. The interrogative status s marked by a change in word order, involving the inversion of the subject and the auxiliary, or the first auxiliary if more than one are present. Verbs which have no auxiliary in the affirmative status use the auxiliary do/does/ did to form the interrogative, except be, which always simply inverts subject and verb, and have, which may invert or may use the forms of do. The auxiliaries get, used (to), and have (to) also use the forms of do. The following examples illustrate interrogative status.
Inverted forms:
Is he working
Has he worked
Should he have worked
Is he going to work
Do-forms:
Does he work
Did he work
Did he get killed
Does he have to work
Did he used to work
The nagative statusis marked by the invertion of the special function word not, immediately after the first auxiliary. Again the forms of do are used if no auxiliary is otherwise present. The forms of do are used when the auxiliary is used (to), have (to), or a simple fom of get.the following examples illustrate various cases of ngative status:
He is not working
He has nor worked
He should not have worked
He is not going to work
He does not work
He is not here
He has not any money
He does not have any money
He does not have any money
he did not used to work
The negative-interrogtive status combines the two former, as its name indicates. The use of the auxiliary do follows the same pattern as in the interrogative forms. This strucure brings the subject and the function word not together at the same point in the midl of the split verb-phrase. Either of them may come first, but the form with the subject before not is somewhat more formal, as the following exmples show:
not-First form:
isn’t he working
hasn’t he worked
shouldn’t he have worked
doesn’t he work
hasn’t he any money
doesn’t he have any money
subject-first form:
is he not working
has he not worked
should he not have worked
does he not work
has he not any money
does he not have any money
We may summarize this sevenfold classification of verbs by a tabular analysis of four typical verb-phrase:
a. He is to be told
b. They shuld not have been working
c. Ought we to get going
d. Mightn’t he have been getting run over
A | B | c | d | |
Person | Third-singular | Common | common | common |
Tense | Common | Past | common | past |
Phase | Simple | Perfect | simple | perfect |
Aspect | Simple | Durative | inchoative | durative |
Mode | be to | Shall | ought to | may |
Voice | be-passive | Active | active | get-passive |
Status | affirmative | Negative | interrogative | negative-interrogative |
SUBJECTS
In our disscussion of person-concord we have already illustrated various types of subjects. We may now somewhat expand and give a few more ilustrations.
The commonest subjects are noun or noun-headed stuctures of modification:
Money talks
The weather has changed
The longest day eventually ends
A could gray day in winter depresses me
The other three parts of speech and structures of modification of which they are head may also function as subject:
Adjectives: handsome is as handsome does
helpful to your friends is a good way to be
Adverbs: now is too soon
never again will be soon enough
Verbs (infinitive): to err is human
to work in New York is my ambition
(present participle): working there is pleasant
living comfortably is expensive
Some other structures that may srve as subject are the following:
1. Prepositional Phrase:
to South America is a long trip
in America is where I choose to live
2. Structure of Complementation:
to make a good living takes hard work
sailing a boat is my favorite hobby
3. Structure of Coordination:
food and drink can be had here
to be or not to be is Hamlet’s question
4. Structure of Predication (Included Clauses)
whatever is is right
that he did it at all has not been proved
When the subject is one of the pronouns I, he, she, it, we, they, or who, a question of concord arises. These words have the alternative objective-case forms me, him, her, it, us, them, and whom. Normally when one of these is a subject, it is the nominative form which appears:
he called me in
they have been sent away
she and I met yesterday
A special type of subjectis the function word there. The function word there is sometimes called a temporary subject, filling the subject position in place of the true subject, which follows the verb. This interpretation is borne out by the fact that the verb frequently shows concord with a following noun, as in
there is a tavern in the town
there were three kings
CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION
Structure of predication has two immediate constituents, they are subject and predicate. Each of these may be a single word, a word with accompanying function word(s), a phrase, or one of the three other kinds of syntactic structure—modification, complementation, or coordination. The predicate is usually a more or less complex structure with the verb at its core. In addition, the subject may be a structure of predication which is defined as included clause. Thus verb is classified into seven heads: person, tense, phase, aspect, mode, voice, and status.
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